Cas9 In Genetically Modified Food Unlikely to Cause Food Allergy

Cas9 in Genetically Modified Food Is Unlikely to Cause Food Allergy

Osamu Nakajima,* Tomoko Nishimaki-Mogami, and Kazunari Kondo

Two major scientific topics of controversy remain widely discussed: genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and the CRISPR-Cas genetic modification system.  The two are meshed together and examined by Osamu Nakajima and his colleagues.  To understand the premise of this article and the major scientific question at hand, it is first necessary that each topic be examined in broad detail. 

            GMOs have been widely inspected for their potential harmful effects on the human population via consumption of such genetically modified foods.  However, although extensive research links genetically modified organisms to everything from food allergies to cancer, there is no conclusive evidence/law that states that genetically modified food is harmful for human consumption.  Genetically modification of food usually involves a certain editing of the organism’s genetic material in order to provide a new and likely desirable trait. This editing typically consists of artificial insertion of foreign DNA (containing a specific trait) into the organism to be modified.  These desirable traits can range from making a tomato appear more deep red and therefore more aesthetically pleasing to the customer, to making a corn plant drought or pest resistant in order to increase yields. 

            However, often times this modification technology that is used may not be so artificial after all!  Specifically, the CRISPR-Cas system, short for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats, was originally an immune defense that was first discovered in bacteria in order to prevent against viral infection.  When a virus first attaches to a bacterial cell, it releases its genetic material into the bacterial host cell that is now infected.  Following infection, short segments of viral DNA can become integrated into the bacterial host’s DNA at the CRISPR site.  If this cell becomes infected with another virus that contains this same DNA segment, the bacteria will recognize it and use a protein known as Cas to cut the viral DNA, therefore inactivating it and preventing bacterial cell death.

            By using this CRISPR-Cas system for genetic modification, it allows researchers to selectively delete or insert specific segments of DNA that will produce the desired trait in the organism.  The researchers in the paper introduced above focus on the CRISPR-Cas9 system in regards to digestibility and thermal stability upon human consumption of these genetically modified foods.  Specifically, they discovered that the Cas9 system was not stable at high temperatures and is degraded easily, suggesting that it is highly unlikely that it would not be degraded in the stomach upon digestion.  Additionally, they discussed the possibility of GMOs in processed food, but proved that heat treatment during food processing that is required would also degrade the Cas9 system.  If the Cas9 system were to aggregate, or clump together, there would be extensive toxicity, yet there was no evidence of aggregation, but rather, degradation.

  With any genetic modification system, it is imperative that it be analyzed for food safety, allergenicity, and the possibility for mutations to arise as a result of the editing. Another potential concern that resulted from the study included the genetic modification system existing in plants being backcrossed. Backcrossing is achieved by taking a plant hybrid (one that is genetically modified) with a parent or one that is genetically similar in order to create a desired end product.  If this backcrossing occurs, the clones that do not contain the Cas9 in their genome will be selected.  However, if the backcrossing is not performed, then it will remain in the plant, meaning the general public will be consuming the genetically modified plant unknowingly and unwillingly if they choose to do so. 

After analyzing the incorporation of the Cas9 gene into GMOs for food use, it was found to lack the ability to produce an allergenic response and therefore is unlikely to cause human food allergy upon consumption of these GMOs.  However, despite these experiments, it is important to note the possibility of this genome modification system in causing a potential food allergy. 

Is your Smartphone the reason for all your Stress?

Nia Rivers

Almost all of us have one; and most of us will probably have it on our person or near us as we read this right now. A smartphone. A device that allows us productivity enhancement as well as giving us the ability to obtain information in a matter of seconds. The introduction of the iPhone to global markets back in 2007 changed the mobile industry and on top of entertainment and diversions it allows us social information and the ability to stay connected worldwide. Despite the many uses and advantages of smartphones, there are disadvantages that come with it as well. A study by Jon D. Elhai highlight the relationship that problematic smartphone use can have with anxiety and depression. Problematic smartphone use can develop through the tendency of notifications and alerts to serve as cues for automatic checking behaviors. These habits serve as a gateway to increased, potentially problematic smartphone use through things like trying to obtain social reassurance, “Fear of missing out” (FoMO), extraversion as well as impulsivity.

Most prominent psychological models of addiction argue that compulsory use comes out of a process of positive and/or negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement models of addiction use an incentive sensitization theory which posits that addiction initially develops as a process of mood enhancement. In the beginning an individual enjoys and then eventually craves the positive aspects of the compulsory behavior like notification checking. Pavlovian learning, or classical conditioning refers to a learning procedure in which a stimulus is paired with a previously neutral stimulus. This study was done by Ivan Pavlov who used the stimulus of food, and the neutral stimulus of a bell, so that after a period of conditioning when the bell rung the dogs would salivate without the stimulus of food. In early stages problem cellphone use displays Pavlovian learning; having individuals attuned to small cues that signal a reward but eventually produces a disconnect between “like” and “wanting” engagement in the behavior. As the behavior becomes more compulsory, the individual begins to experience negative mood when not engaging in the behavior, a kind of withdrawal. Problematic smartphone use can be seen as craving positive emotion to alleviate negative emotion through a.) habitual use and checking behaviors; b.) seeing excessive reassurance and c.) reluctance to miss important information or content.

Elhai and his fellow peers conducted a systematic review of publications from 2008 until 2015 that examined clinical disorders and their relationship with smartphone use that are incorporated in DSM-5, which is the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition that is used by the American Psychiatric Association as a diagnostic tool for psychiatric diagnoses. Their general findings suggest that problematic as well as general smartphone use commonly co-occur with things like depression, anxiety and stress. Depression severity had a consistent, significant link with smartphone addiction and based on effect size convention had at least medium effect sizes when involving on two variables, though they were slightly lower on average when statistically controlling them for other variables. Anxiety severity was also consistently, significantly associated with problem smartphone use, with small effect sizes. Stress was fairly consistent, while self-esteem was not consistently associated with problem use.

But there is the other side of this coin. Placed within a larger context of technological relations and the internet there is also evidence that psychopathology, such as depression or anxiety, can be the cause of a technological addiction. Chronically stressed individuals are found to use online video gaming as a coping mechanism to relieve stress, and furthermore some depressed individuals use their mobile phones as a coping method to deal with negative emotions.

With these two arguments at play there is a third. Other evidence suggests a relationship that can go in two directions; where problem smartphone use drives mental illness, and mental illness drives problematic smartphone use. Further research will continue to be done on this subject, seeing as smartphones don’t look like they are going out of style anytime soon.

Why Americans Need Coffee

The Effects of Coffee on Type 2 Diabetes and Hyperglycemia

Americans consume around 400 million cups of coffee per day, which totals to 146 billion cups of coffee per year! Most people consume coffee to get an extra kick in the morning but there is another reason more Americans should be joining the trend. In a nation where type 2 diabetes and high blood sugar (hyperglycemia) is on the rise, the need to maintain blood sugar levels is critical and there have been several world-wide studies done in the past decade supporting the idea that coffee decreases blood sugar levels. Normally, when the body consumes energy in the form of glucose (carbohydrates), it is able to regulate the amount of glucose in circulation because insulin, a hormone released by the pancreas, signals cells to take up glucose and use it as energy. Too much glucose, however, will result in cells unable to release insulin or cells that are resistant to insulin and do not take up glucose. This disease is known as diabetes and the result is hyperglycemia, which, if left untreated, leads to nerve damage and kidney failure. A large 2015 study in Brazil, looks deeper into the effects of coffee on type 2 diabetes as well as hyperglycemia and glucose metabolism.

The study focused primarily on middle-aged and elderly people who are most commonly affected by hyperglycemia and type 2 diabetes. Statistical analyses were performed to examine the associations between different rates of coffee consumption with newly diagnosed diabetes as well as previously diagnosed diabetes. The study found that the effect of coffee consumption during and after lunch or dinner (postprandial) has a greater effect on glucose levels than after a period of fasting (2 or more hours after a meal). Furthermore, the study showed that participants who drank 2 or more times per day displayed the lowest odds of developing diabetes.

Figure 1: The association between the frequency of coffee consumption and newly diagnosed diabetes and intermediate hyperglycemia.

This study provides evidence for the protective effect of coffee against adult-onset diabetes, however, this effect appears to act primarily, if not exclusively, through postprandial glucose homeostasis, as opposed to drinking coffee after a period of fasting. Figure 1 shows that moderate consumption (1 or more cups per day) of coffee was not consistently associated with glucose levels measured but participants who consumed coffee 2 or more times per day showed a 23-26% lower odds ratio (OR) of being diagnosed diabetes as well as a lower impaired glucose tolerance. Analyses produced similar results when coffee consumption was measured base on both quantity and frequency consumed. However, for people previously diagnosed with diabetes, there were no associations between coffee and improvements of glucose regulation during two-hour post-meal tests.

Although the effects of coffee on diminishing the risk for type 2 diabetes and insulin resistance has been thoroughly showed, there is an inconsistent understanding of how coffee affects glucose metabolism and insulin resistance and secretion. The study found a significant inverse association between coffee and post-meal insulin concentrations, but no associations with markers of insulin resistance in the fasting state. Some studies have suggested that caffeine is the major component in glucose metabolism; however, some data exists showing the same effects of both caffeinated and decaffeinated coffee. The protein in coffee that provides the largest case is adiponectin, a protein shown to regulate glucose metabolism and fatty acid breakdown by acting through another protein that modulates glucose uptake. However, more research is needed before this claim can be substantially proven as fact.

Overall, drinking a cup of coffee during or after a meal more than once a day a potential way to naturally decrease your risk of developing type 2 diabetes and hyperglycemia with few unknown side effects. Although this effect has yet to be substantially proven, the number of studies showing similar results is increasing. The only issue is confirming the mechanism through which coffee regulates blood sugar levels and the molecules involved. From what we do know of coffee could bring us closer to a final consensus. Coffee contains caffeine, which studies have shown burns fat and boost metabolic rate, as well as vitamin B₂ and B₅, potassium, and magnesium, which are essential for converting food into fuel, allowing us to stay energized throughout the day and while these may not provide significant results their benefits to human health is inarguable. As Dr. Frank Hu, a professor of nutrition and epidemiology professor at the Harvard School of Public Health, states, “There is certainly much more good news than bad news, in terms of coffee and health.”

What do dogs really hear?

Joseba Bidaburu

What do dogs really hear?

Image yourself at Gonzaga University exiting Hughes and across Herak lawn a crowd is starting to grow, so you ask yourself what is going on. At first glance it looks like it could be a collegiate squirrel but then upon further investigation it becomes clear to you that it is a canis lupus familiaris commonly known as a dog. Upon realization you make it a goal that you will go and pet this dog, but just as you are about to get within the petting range the owner says, “Come on boy! Lets go.” Leaving you just inches away from your goal. With a minor setback in your day trotting away you stumble upon a scientific question, “Do dogs really understand human speech?”. But thanks to the scientific community and the men and woman who make it up this very question is trying to be answered. 

In a recent scientific study the question of dog-directed speech is being analyzed to determine why people use it when speaking to dogs, and if dogs pay attention to it. The first part of the study looked at how the human voice changed in harmony and pitch when looking at a dog. The second part of the study was to examine how a dog would react to the sound of a human voice. To run this test thirty women were used, they read off of a script that included phrases like, “What a good boy!” and “Come here!”. At first these were a control (human-directed speech) so no dog image was present. Then the participance were shown images of dogs and as a resource they said (dog-directed speech) the same phrases from the control. The images were divided into three categorizes puppies (less then a year old), adult dogs (1-8 years old), and old dogs (older then 8 years). Then the voices were analyzed. 

The second part of the studies was to see how dogs respond to the two types of speech; human-directed and dog-directed speech. Twenty dogs were used for the sample ten puppies and ten adult dogs. All dogs were given the same treatment, they were in a spacious room and had time to adjust so they did not feel uncomfortable in the room. Then the audio samples from the first part of the experiment were played for the dogs. The human-directed and dog-directed speech was played for thirty second intervals, with five minute breaks in between. The scientist looked at how the dog responded to the different types of speech; specifically looking at how quickly they responded and how long they showed interest after the audio stopped playing. This study was able to show that when a human is presented with the image of a dog that the voice will change, with a higher pitch and higher degree of harmony. This seems to happen because it is the natural way humans help others learn. When a human speaks to infant the same thing happens, it is a mechanism to improve linguistic performance. A similar behavior is seen when speaking to the elderly and linguistic foreigners. More evidence of this is that the dog-directed speech decreased as the dogs appeared to be older. Examine the second half of the study it was clear that puppies had a very strong response to the dog-directed speech. The adult and old dogs also responded but it was with less spontaneity and duration. This is seen in the wild with wolves because high pitched tones are associated with feeding. This study was able to show that dogs respond best to dog-directed speech also humans use dog-directed speech when a dog is present. 

Where did the whales go? Or did they even do anywhere?

Humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) can be found in all major oceans, which means that you don’t have to go far to get to see one of these beautiful creatures. In fact, you should try and see one while you still have the chance. The populations of humpback whales have been a concern since the 1950s when severe whaling decreased whale populations by 90%. Whales have been known to provide us with direct value through human consumption of meat and oil provided by whale blubber. As consumers we are driven to making a profit and unfortunately sometimes this comes with increased hunting with the consequences of losing species that are beneficial to our environment. A new ship based study has shown that the recent prediction of whale populations is much greater than originally thought due to implementation of whaling laws. You would think that with an increase in population the need for more conservation efforts would not be needed but even with an increase in numbers, the risk of other human threats also increases. This causes the need for other conservation efforts. Population studies allow us be aware of how many whales there are and where they live so that we can see the success of conservation efforts and figure out how to continue these efforts.

This study focused on a particular population of humpback whales, those in the Western South Atlantic, along the coast of Brazil. This population was on the “endangered list” as it was depleted to near extinction in mid-twentienth century. It wasn’t until 1960 that the International Whaling Commission warranted a protection of this species from human activities such as whaling. This protection allowed for the recovery of whales and a decade ago these whales were reclassified from ‘vulnerable’ to ‘least concern’ and are now only endangered in Arabian sea and the Oceania population.

The rise in humpback whale populations are excellent at the moment but there are still other threats present. While the whales are showing significant increase in populations since the protection act has been in place, there are other concerns that draw our attention back to monitoring the humpback whales. Whales have been recovering but along with this recovery is also an expansion in their range distribution. With whales swimming further from the coast then normal, it heightens the chance for conflicts with other anthropogenic activities. These conflicts can include things such as ship strikes, entanglements with fishing gear, and issues related to the oil and gas industry. By understanding the rate of whale population recovery and their distribution we can figure out a way to ensure that our human activity is not interfering with this recovery.

Population studies allow for an understanding of how a particular species population is growing. Most of the population survey studies done on whales have been done aerially. In a research paper by Bortolotto, et. Al, they also wanted to do a population study on the humpback whale population in WSA, except they took a different approach. Their aim was to present ship-based line-transect estimates of abundance for humpback whales. They did this by having two research cruises along the coast of Brazil in 2008 and 2012 so that they could investigate the changes in population size. Their study showed results of an increased number of whales than previous aerial studies.

Humpback whale populations were shown to increase 26.7% from 2008 to 2012. The study showed that there were 15,332 whales in 2008 and 19,429 whales in 2012. The numbers in 2012 are not completely accurate due to severe weather limited the observable study area.

Ship-based studies provide a different and perhaps more accurate estimate of species abundance than aerial studies. The abundance of whales before severe whaling occurred was around 25,000 whales in WSA. A previous aerial study in 2006 showed that the recovery of the hump back whale population would be 60% recovered by 2020 but the ship-based study shows that we already surpassed this. The whale population is already at 65% recovery. The results show that the recovery of humpback whales is occurring at a faster rate than shown by previous aerial studies predicted.

There are various methods that can be used for understanding the populations of different species and by performing various study methods it can give different insight to the dynamics of a population. Through monitoring the abundance of whales we can see not only the significant increase in humpback whale abundance over the years, but also the importance of continually monitoring the population. The projected population recovery made in 2006 is substantially different compared to the results provided by the 2008 and 2012 study.

Since the protection act of whales was enacted it has allowed for the increasing recovery of humpback whales. This shows the success of conservation efforts and protection acts. While whaling is now highly regulated, there are other anthropogenic factors that are not controlled. The threats of increased entanglements and ship strikes can be prevented by protecting the area where whales swim and breed. There is also an increased interest in oil and gas extraction in the WSA and according to Brazilian National Agency of Petroleum, Natural Gas and Biofuels, they plan on expanding. This would negatively affect the reproductive success of whales. These human activities still pose a threat to whales and with a population that has once been vulnerable to extinction it would be sad to see the whales head back in that direction. Population studies have allowed us to see the significantly fast increase of the whale population due to one conservation law so imagine what a few more laws could do to keep the whales from heading back towards extinction.